IOSR-JAVS   Volume-6 ~ Issue-3 ~ NOV-DEC-2013

ABSTRACT:This study was conducted to assess the effects of agricultural Extension Methods used in conflict resolutions among pastoralists. A multi – stage proportional random sampling techniques was used for selection of 160 respondents used for the study. The result revealed that 59.38% of respondents claimed they have used truce in their conflict resolution. About 10.63% of the respondents had used tolerance in their conflict resolutions. About 42.5% of the respondents claimed that, farm and home visit extension method use truce to resolveconflict effectively.A significance test was carried out, which reveals that it is significant to use extension methods of farm and home visits, as t – value, 0.01 coefficient of Gp = 0.16 at 1% level of significant. The test also indicates that extension contact used during meetings had its t – value as 1.42, coefficient 676.65 and P – value 0.04 and significant at 1% level. Meaning that agro – pastoralists increased levels of group meeting lead to increase in conflict resolution probably because of group participation through meetings tends to increase ideas in favour of conflict resolutions. The characterization of agricultural extension methods used for conflict resolutions were embodied in social – economic realities of the agro – pastoralists. Even when the extension workers had demonstrated higher level of effectiveness (56.8%) in conflict resolution through their usual contacts with agro – pastoralists, conflict still exists between the agro – pastoralists.Based on the findings, it was recommended that;government should increase the number of well-trained extension workers with capacity for agro – pastoralists conflict resolutions and use of farm and home visits for effective conflict resolutionsby extension workers.

Key words: Extension Methods, Conflict Resolutions, Pastoralist Communities

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ABSTRACT:Nigeria is the largest producer of the mud catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in sub-Sahara Africa. However, most of the strains used in aquaculture have suffered from inbreeding and its consequences. This study was conducted to evaluate reproductive performance of wild strains of C. gariepinus from freshwater systems of Nigeria and compare with domesticated strain. Collection of broodstock for the study was made from the 6 geo-political zones of Nigeria namely: South-South, South-West, South-East, North-Central, North-East and North-West. The fish were conditioned, fed and spawned in the laboratory of Fishtech/Biotechnology Department of the Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research, Lagos, Nigeria. The results revealed that collection from North-West (Kebbi state) had the highest values for fertilization (89.8±2.7), hatchability (81.8±4.9) and survival (61.3±6.3) among the wild strains. This was followed by North-East having 82.7±3.1a, 79.7±8.1 and 48.7±2.1 respectively. The domesticated strain had the least of these indices: 64.8±9.5b, 60.4±6.5 and 41.0±3,8 for fertilization, hatchability and survival respectively. Although previous study indicates high performance in terms of fertilization, hatchability and survival for North-west (Kebbi) strain of Clarias gariepinus, the growth performance after 30 days of rearing from egg was lower than other strains. Mean weight was 0.98g, maximum weight 4.06g while minimum weight was 0.3g, with standard deviation of 0.3. Domesticated strain had average weight of 2.01g, maximum weight of 5.93g and minimum of 0.64±0.21g. There was also significant difference (α=0.05) in the number of shooters produced by each strain. The domesticated strain had the highest number of shooters (25±5.7) while the strain from Kebbi had the least value (8±2.1). It implies that the progeny from North-West of Kebbi were more uniform in size. The implication of the breeding potentials of Clarias geriepinus strain from Kebbi (high fertilization, hatchability and survival but poor growth), Oyo and Anambra (better growth but lower hatchability, fertilization and survival) is that if several selective breeding of these strains are carried out separately and the gene pool of Kebbi is combined with any of these two (Oyo and Anambra states), we are likely to obtain fish seed of better reproductive potential in terms of fertilization, hatchability, survival and better growth performance.

Key Word: Breeding, Performance, Clarias gariepinus, Nigerian Waters

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ABSTRACT: Garlic (Allium sativum) is probably one of the earliest known medicinal plants and has been used to improve growth and resistance of a number of livestock and fish. This study was conducted to show the effects garlic on the growth performance and nutrient utilization of fingerlings of an ecotype cichlid commonly called 'wesafu' in Nigeria. A total of 600 fingerlings (1.4 ± 0.12 g) were obtained from the hatchery of the Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research, Victoria Island, Lagos and used for the study. They were randomly assigned to 12 plastic tanks each, 0.5 m3 with a flow-through water system. Five doses of garlic,0 (control), 10g, 20g and 30g of fresh clove of garlic were mixed with 1kg feed. The control diet was free from garlic. The experiment extended lasted for 12 weeks. The results showed significantly increased weight and growth performance of the ecotype cichlid (P<0.01) in all groups fed on garlic. The mortalities were lower in diet supplemented with garlic than in the control group. The improve survival rate may be due to the enhanced immune response resulting from improved defense mechanism.

Key Words: Garlic, Growth, Nutrient utilization, Survival, 'wesafu'

[1]. Abou-Zeid S.M (2002). The effects of some medical plants in reproductive and productive performance of Nile tilapia fish. Cairo University, Faculty of Agriculture (PhD Thesis)
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[3]. Citarasu, T., R. R. Sekar, M. M. Babu and M. P. Marian. 2002. Developing Artemia enriched herbal diet for producing quality larvae in Penaeus monodon. Asian. Fish. Sci. 15:21-32.
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ABSTRACT:The release of crude oil into the environment by oil spills is receiving worldwide attention due to the potential risks posed to the ecosystem. The effect of crude oil pollution on soil physical properties was investigated at Effunrun, Warri, Delta State, Nigeria. Soil samples in three replicates were collected from a polluted area and control (unpolluted) sites at three soil depths of 0-5 cm, 0-10 cm and 10-15 cm and analyzed for soil physical properties. Sand particles was significantly (p<0.05) reduced by 4.4 % at 10-15cm depth when compared with 0-5 cm depth. In contrast, clay content was significantly (p<0.05) lower at 0-5cm depth than 5-10 cm and 10-15 cm respectively, by 26.0 % and 30.7 %. Clay content increased with soil depth. Soil total porosity and macroporosity were 7.84 % and 17.6 %, respectively being higher in unpolluted soil than polluted soil howbeit, the results were similar. The study revealed that crude oil can have effect on pore spaces within the soil. Consequently, this may impair aeration and infiltration of water into the soil and inhibit plant growth.

Keywords: Crude oil, Pollution, Soil, Physical properties, Ecosystem

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ABSTRACT:American foulbrood disease is one of the most devastating infectious bacterial disease affecting the larval stage of the honey bee Apis mellifera caused by Paenibacillus larvae and occurs throughout the world. No data are available on this disease in the bees of the area, therefore this is the first study carried out in order to detect the disease in the suspected bee colonies. A total of 80 samples of suspected bee combs were collected from apiaries of different districts of Duhok province and analyzed bacteriologically. Paenibacillus larvae was found in 13 (16.2%) samples among 80 suspected bee comb samples collected from different districts in which 5 from 7 districts were infected. Conclusion: American foulbrood disease is widespread in the bee colonies of the area.

Key words: American Foulbrood Disease, Apiaries

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ABSTRACT: Exploring the potentials of alternative feed resources is significant in ameliorating the characteristic weight loss of ruminants, attributed to inadequate dry season feeding in tropical countries. Sixteen West African Dwarf (WAD) goat (average 6kg±0.23kg body weight) were used in a twelve weeks feeding trial to determine the acceptability and nutrient digestibility of goats fed different level of baobab (Adansonia digitata) as supplement to wheat offal. Two experimental diets designated P and Q containing baobab whole fruit and pulp only respectively were fed to determine the acceptability of baobab based meal. The coefficient of preference determined for pulp only meal was greater than 1 and considered more acceptable than whole baobab fruit. Results indicated no significant differences (P>0.05) in the final body weight of all treatments. There were significant differences (P<0.05) in the dry matter (DM), crude fibre (CF) and nitrogen free extract (NFE) digestibilities among the treatments. However, goats on diet 2 performed better than others in DM, CP, EE digestibility and weight gain measured. Results obtained from this study showed that even though all the dietary inclusion level were satisfactory, inclusion level of 10% gives optimum performance when fed to WAD goats.

Keywords: body weight, guinea grass, pulp, supplement, wheat offal

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ABSTRACT: Haematological characteristics was studied in 108 Dominant black pullets fed diets with varying levels of cassava peel meal (CPM). The birds were assigned into three experimental groups; A, B & C comprising 36 pullets each. The first group, Group A was given the control diets containing 0% CPM, while Groups C and B diets contained 10% and 20% CPM respectively. The packed cell volume (PCV) values in diet C at the 37th week was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the value recorded in the control diet, while the total white blood cell counts in diet B in the 12 week declined significantly (P<0.05) when compared with diet C. Diets did not affect the Haemoglobin concentration (Hb). The red blood cells of the pullets showed no significant (P>0.05) difference among the various treatments.

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ABSTRACT: The study was performed by using FAO Penman-Monteith equation. Required parameters were set for 9 synoptic stations in Iraqi Kurdistan for a period from 2004 to 2012. Sangasar and Karkuk were selected as two different agro-climatic zones. Data were processed by (CROPWAT 8.0) program, and the values of ETo and effective rainfall were calculated. Several crops were selected in the study including alfalfa, barley, beans, cabbage, grapes, maize, potatoes, sunflower, melons, tomatoes and wheat. Crop coefficients (Kc) were taken from tables of FAO under medium soil conditions. The results show that potential evapotranspiration in Sangasar zone was 0.9 -8 mm/day, whereas in Karkuk zone was 1.5 to12 mm/day. The highest water requirement was estimated for grape in the Sangasar zone (Soran) 987.6mm/day and 1635.1 mm/day for Karkuk zone (Makhmur). In the same way, the minimum water requirement was estimated for alfalfa (first mowing) in Sangasar zone (Penjwen) 224.1mm/day and 269.7mm/day for Karkuk zone (Chamchamal).

[1] A. Hadi and M. Mehdi, Water requirement of tomato using software by CROPWAT version 8i, Zabol University water engineering journal, 2010. (In Persian).
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ABSTRACT: A field experiment was carried out to study the effect of different levels of saline water on some cowpea characteristics by using randomized complete block design with three replicates. Plant growth, nutrient concentration and protein content were studied. In addition, some soil chemical properties were investigated. Three levels 0, 2500 and 3500 ppm of saline water (sodium chloride) were used for irrigation in two types of soil. Results indicated that increasing salinity levels significantly decreased plant height, number of leaves, nutrients uptake, protein yield of cowpea, and ions concentration in the soil after harvesting. Vegetative growth was affected by increasing salinity levels of irrigation water. Increase in salinity of irrigation water above 3500 ppm reduced plant height and number of leaves by 38% and 66% respectively in Khabat soil. On the other hand, the result shows that the ions accumulated significantly in soil with increasing water salinity levels. A rapidly increase in chloride concentration was observed with increasing water salinity levels but other ions gradually increase in both soils.

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ABSTRACT: Pot experiment was carried out under greenhouse conditions at Khabat, Iraqi Kurdistan during 2011 and 2012 growth season to investigate Fe, B and Zn foliar application effects on nutrient concentration and seed protein of cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata). The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with three replicates. In addition, three concentrations (0, 1 and 2 ppm) of micronutrient solutions were applied. Fe, B and Zn were sprayed every 15 days. Parameters measured were values of each nutrients and protein%, also, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na and Cl. The results of the analysis of variance showed that the effect of different treatments at 1% level on nutrient concentration and seed protein were significant. Iron treatment has a greater effect on the nutrient uptake and protein percentage of seed than other treatments. The study results explain that foliar fertilization with micronutrient may have a possibility role for increasing cowpea yield.

[1] A. R. Heidarian, H. Kord, Khodadad Mostafavi, Amir Parviz Lak, Faezeh Amini Mashhadi, Investigating Fe and Zn foliar application on yield and its components of soybean (Glycine max (L) Merr.) at different growth stages, Journal of Agricultural Biotechnology and Sustainable Development,Vol. 3(9), 2011, pp. 189 -197.
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[4] Babaeian, M., M. Heidari and A. Ghanbari, Effect of water stress and foliar micronutrient application on physiological characteristics and nutrient uptake in sunflower (Helianthus annus L.), Iranian Journal of Crop Sciences 12 (4), 2010, 377-391. (In Persian)
[5] Cakmak, I., Sary, N. Marschner, H. Kalayci, M. Yilmaz, A. Eker, S. and Gulut, K.Y., Dry matter production and distribution of Zn in bread and durum wheat genotypes differing in Zn efficiency. Plant and Soil 180, 1996,173-181.

ABSTRACT: Field experiments were conducted during 2010-11, near coastal area at Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (JNTBGRI), Puthenthope, Thiruvananthapuram for the development of agrotechnology package in Plectranthus vettiveroides. For propagation, the positional effect and size of stem cuttings on survival rate and sprouting under open and 50% shade net conditions were tested. Influence of stem cuttings from shoot tip to basal portion, individual and group planting per pit, spacing, light intensity, irrigation schedule and harvesting period on growth performance and yield were also tested. The results revealed that four shoot tip cuttings with 1-6 nodes (~15 cm length) planted per pit at a spacing of 35 cm  35 cm under light intensity range of 3000-6000 lux and irrigated daily twice during morning and evening hours showed optimum growth performance and yield. The plants harvested after 70 days of planting yielded maximum shoot and root biomass and oil per unit area basis.

Keywords: Plectranthus vettiveroides, spacing, stem, planting, irrigation, harvest, light, shoot tip, yield

[1] P.K. Warrier, V.P.K. Nambiar and K.C. Raman, Indian Medicinal Plants: A Compendium of 500 species. (Orient Longman, Madras.1995) pp 318-320.
[2] Sunanda Mondal and S.A. Kolhapure, Evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy and safety of pure hands herbal hand sanitizer in hand hygiene and on inanimate objects, The Antiseptic, 101(2), 2004, 55-57.
[3] K.C. Jacob, A new Species of Coleus, Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 42, 1941, 320-322.
[4] P.M. Safeer, S. Sreekumar, P.N. Krishnan, C.K. Biju and G. Seeja, Influence of soil texture and bed preparation on growth performance in Plectranthus vettiveroides, IOSR-JAVS, 5(3), 2013, 41-45.
[5] A. Saraswathy, K. Amala and Arunmozhi Devi, Coleus vettiveroides K.C. Jacob; Botany and Pharmacognosy, Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 10(4), 2011, 636-642.
[6] Z. Tchoundjeu and R.R.B. Leakey, Vegetative propagation of African mahogany: effects of auxin, node position, leaf area, and cutting length, New Forests, 11, 1996, 125-136.

ABSTRACT: The aim of the present study was to isolate and identify microflora species at different levels of the female genital tract (cervix, body of uterus, horns of uterus and oviducts) of ewes and estimate their prevalence. Ninety-six samples (cervix, uterine body, right and left uterine horns, and right and left oviducts) were taken from sixteen ewes genital systems in Al-Hilla slaughterhouse at period from December 2012 to March 2013 and the swabs were from each part of genital system for bacteriological studies. The results indicated that there were different types of bacteria distributed throughout genital system as E-coli (37.83) %, Salmonella (21.62) %, Klebsiella (10.81) %, Staphlococcusaureus (6.75) %, Strptococcus spp. (6.75) %, Proteus (6.75) %, Micrococcus (5.4) % and finally others (S.epidermid and Pseudomonus) (4.05)%. We concluded that E-coli were the most predominant bacteria in normal and pathological cases.

[1] Azawi, O. I. and Al-Mola, M. K. Effect of season and mating system in Awassi ewes superovulated with FSH on fertilization rate and embryo recovery. 2010;Iraq J. of Vet. Scien. , 24(2):75-79.
[2] D. E. Noakes, T. J. Parkin-on and G. C. W. England, eds. Veterinary reproduction and obstetrics. 9th ed. China: Elsevier Limited, 2009.
[3] Kassim F. Abdul-kareem, A.A.S.AI-Mayah, KaisarDawood. Abnormalities of reproductive organs in ewes:a prospective histopathological study. 2007; Bas.J, Vet.Res.Vo1.6 No. 1.
[4] C. Palmieri, E. Schiavi, and L. Della Salda. Congenital and acquired pathology of ovary and tubular genital organs in ewes: A review. Therio, 2011; 75(3): 393–410.

ABSTRACT: An experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance of local aromatic rice cultivars viz. Kalijira, Khaskani, Kachra, Raniselute, Morichsail and Badshabhog. The rice cultivars varied considerably in terms of crop growth characteristics as well as yield and yield contributing characters. The highest plant height (116.00 cm) was found in the variety Morichsail and the lowest in the variety Khaskani. Number of filled grains panicle-1 was found highest (100) with the variety Khaskani and the lowest was recorded in the variety Raniselute. Raniselute produced the highest 1000-grain weight (32.09 g) and the lowest (13.32 g) was recorded from the variety Kalijira. The variety Morichsail produced the highest grain yield (2.53 t ha-1) followed by Kachra (2.41 t ha-1), Raniselute (2.13 t ha-1) and Badshabhog (2.09 t ha-1) and the lowest grain yield (1.80 t ha-1) was obtained from Kalijira.

[1] Das, T. and Baqui, M.A. 2000. Aromatic rices of Bangladesh. pp. 184-187. In: Singh, R.K.; Singh, U.S. and Khush, G.S. (eds.), Aromatic Rices. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi and Calcutta, India. [2] Baqui, M.A., Harun, M.E., Jones, D. and Straingfellow, R. 1997. The export potential of traditional varieties of rice from Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh. [3] Islam, M.R., Mustafi, B.A.A. and Hossain, M. 1996. Socio-economic aspects of fine quality rice cultivation in Bangladesh, In: Rice Research Prioritization, BRRI/IRRI. [4] Alim, A., Zaman, S.M.H., Sen, J.L., Ullah, M.T. and Chowdhury, M.A. 1962. Review of half a century of rice research in East Pakistan. Agriculture Department, Government of East Pakistan, 33-63 pp. [5] Gomez, K.A. and Gomez, A.A. 1984. Statistical Procedure for Agricultural research. 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 680 p.

ABSTRACT: The effect of mixed vaccinations against Newcastle disease (ND) and Infectious bursal disease (IBD) on immune response, feed consumption and weight gain were studied in 21 days old broilers. The trial was carried out to ascertain the safety of this practice which is intended to reduce labour, cost and stress associated with chasing and catching during individual bird vaccinations in large flocks. The two diseases are among the common viral diseases found in Nigeria; a country with an expanding poultry population that is creating major impact in its meat industry. Their prevention is largely by vaccination and vaccinations with live vaccines can precipitate reactions. A total of 120 broilers were assigned into 4 groups (G1, G2, G3 and G4) of 30 chickens each at 21 days of age.

[1]. Abdu, P. A., Manchang, T. K., and Saidu, L. (2004). The epidemiology and clinicopathological manifestations of Newcastle disease virus in Nigerian local chickens. Proceedings of the 41st Congress of the Nigerian Medical Association. NVRI Vom. p 57.
[2]. Adeyemo, A. A., Onikoyi, M. P. (2012). Prospects and challenges of large scale commercial poultry production in Nigeria. Agricultural Journal. 7: 388 – 393.
[3]. Alexander, D. J. (2000). Newcastle disease and other avian Paramyxoviruses. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'Office International des Epizooties. 19: 443 – 462.
[4]. Alexander, D. J. (2003). Newcastle disease and other avian paramyxovirus and pnuemovirus infections. In: Y. M. Saif (ed). Diseases of Poultry. 11th Edition. Iowa State University Press. USA. Pp 64 -87.
[5]. Ali, A. S., Abdalla, M. O., and Mohammed M. E. H. (2004). Interaction between Newcastle disease and Infectious bursal disease vaccines commonly used in Sudan. International Journal of Poultry Science. 3 (4): 300 – 304.
[6]. Boudaoud, A. and Alloui, N. (2008). Evaluation of the safety of live attenuated vaccine viruses against Infectious bursal disease (Gumboro disease) in conventional broiler chicks. Rev. Sci. Tech. 27(3) 793 – 802.

ABSTRACT: Innundative approach of biocontrol involves culturing spore inoculum for use as a concentrated formulation able to withstand storage, handling and application in weed control the same way as a chemical herbicide. A trial was set up in Maseno University glass house to test the effect of concentrating and formulating A. zonatum spores in vegetable oil, mineral oil, pure commercial grade glycerol and tween 80 for use in water hyacinth biocontrol. A. zonatum was isolated from infected plants collected from Winam gulf (Lake Victoria) Kenya, cultured on PDA under aseptic conditions. The isolate was later multiplied on several PDA plates and spores harvested when mature, concentrated and formulated in 4 different oil emulsions. Fresh healthy water hyacinth plants were then collected from Winam gulf, injured and inoculated in a glass house in RCBD design, replicated 3 times. The results show that concentrating and formulating A. zonatum in vegetable oil and mineral oil may enhance its efficacy as a mycoherbicide, evidenced by the extensive leaf infection, though new leaves continued to form.

[1] Opande G. T., Onyango J. C., Wagai S. O., The water hyacinth(Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) Solms, Its socioeconomic effects, control measures and resurgence in the Winam gulf; Limnologica 34, 2004 105-109 [2] Opande, G. O., Distribution of the water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms., its carpet characteristics, some of its diseases and pests in the Winam gulf of Lake Victoria. doctoral diss. Maseno University. Maseno, Kenya, 2002. [3] Womack, G. J., Gillian M. E. and Burge M. N., A vegetable oil based inert emulsion for mycoherbicide delivery. Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of Strathclyde, The Todd Centre, 31 Taylor Street, Glasgow, G4 ONR, UK.2002 [4] Fernandez, O. A. An ecosystem-based regional approach for aquatic weed control. Procc. 3rd International Weed Science Congress 3: 222. [5] Marcondes D. A. S., Pitelli R. A., Martins D., Tanaka R. H., Bronhara A. A. and Mustafa A. L. Velini (Eds)., Recent advances in biology and control of submersed aquatic weeds in Brazil. Procc. 3rd International Weed Science Congress 3, 2000: 220. [6] Osumo, W. M.., The effect of water hyacinth on water quality in Winam gulf, Lake Victoria. The United Nations University. Reykjavik, 2001.

ABSTRACT: Great Musayab projectwas chosen to assess spatial variability of some soil properties,and furthermore,to investigate its implications for sampling design. Two hundred and forty composited soil samples werecollected acrossthe project and thesurrounding areas. Soil properties including electrolytic conductivity (ECe),calcium carbonate (CaCO3), cation exchange capacity (CEC),as wellas sand, silt, and clay were analyzed for each sample. Classic statistical analysis showed that ECe had the highest CVwhichwas caused by some unusually high measurements. Semivariograms of allproperties were constructed,and compared to estimate thespatial variability of the soilproperties in the area.

[1]. Bachmaier, M.; and M. Backes. 2008. "Variogram or Semivariogram - Explaining the Variances in a Variogram". Precision Agriculture, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. [2]. Boerner, R. E. J.; A. J. Scherzer; and J. A. Brinkman. 1998. Spatial patterns of inorganic N, P availability, and organic C in relation to soil disturbance: a chronosequence analysis. Applied Soil Ecology, 7:159-177. [3]. Cambardella, C. A.; T. B. Moorman; J. M. Novak; T. B. Parkin; D. L. Karlen; R. F. Turco; and A. E. Konopka. 1994. Fieldscale variability of soil properties in Central Iowa soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58: 1501-1511. [4]. Chiles, J. P.; and P. Delfiner. 1999.Geostatistics, Modelling Spatial Uncertainty, Wiley-Interscience. [5]. Duffera, M.; J. G. White; and R.Weisz. 2007. Spatial variability of Southeastern U.S. Coastal Plain soil physical properties: Implications for site-specific management.Geoderma.137: 327- 339.
[6]. Emadi, M.; M.Baghernejad; and M.Maftoun.2008. Assessment of some soil in properties by spatial variability in saline and sodic soils in Arsanjan Plain, Southern Iran. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 11(2): 238-243.
[7]. Grunwald,S.;K. R. Reddy; J. P.Prenger; andM. M. Fisher.2007. Modeling of the spatial variability of biogeochemicalsoil properties in a freshwater ecosystem. Eco1. Mode1. 201: 521-535. [8]. Hoover, K. A.; and M. G. Wolman. 2005. Beyond the semivariogram: Patterns, scale, and hydrology in a semi-arid landscape. Adv. Water Resour. 28: 885-898.