IOSR-JHSS   Volume-10 ~ Issue-2 ~ Mar-Apr-2013

Abstract: The important ones of region development is built infrastructure. In the open economy era, infrastructure is one of the development economy needs, in particular roads infrastructure. Lastly, many research concern about conflict between infrastructure development and environmental. This study explained about cost and benefit from development infrastructure in Southern Malang, which name Southern Cross Roads (JLS). The infrastructure development (JLS) in Malang has converted protected forest about 148,140 hectare be the roads. This is reflected about interaction between economy aspect and ecology aspect. This study using Cost-Benefit Analysis and Contingent Value Method which measured from Willingness to Pay (WTP) and Willingness to Accept (WTA). The result of this research indicated that the conversion of protected forest to road has led to decrease in the economic and ecological benefits of forest protection, depletion natural resources of protected forest, environmental degradation, and the cost and the benefit of JLS development is unbalance.

Keywords: Infrastructure development, Environmental, WTP, WTA

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Abstract: To whom do we attribute the negative consequences of the Reformation to? Was the Reformation the outcome of Luther's rebellious spirit, or a culmination of multiplicity of factors? Who was Luther in the medieval church? These are some of the puzzling questions this paper has attempted to answer with historical insight. The study shows that the medieval church was ripe for reforms and that calls for reforms antedates the protest of Luther and other reformers in the sixteenth century. The research leads contemporary ecclesiastical historians into a multifaceted historical analysis on the causation and political forces that made the Reformation inevitable. Keywords: Ecclesiastical history, Reformation, Causation, Protestantism, Catholicism

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Abstract: The status of woman in Islam is a recurring theme in global feminist discourse. While there is a consensus that Islam has done much to improve the condition of woman compared to what was obtained in pre-Islamic Arabia- the Jahiliyya period, some scholars are worried over the conservative reinvigoration and perpetuation of medieval doctrines against women in the twenty-first century. The study shows that of all religions, Islam has been meticulous in preserving and defending the rights of woman. Since the intention of the study is not apologetic, but a critical reflection on problematic religious prescriptions, the study represents an advocacy for the abolition of doctrines and rules that are obnoxious and repugnant to natural justice. Islamic endorsement of plural marriage is unacceptable in the 21st century. Whatever consideration and reasons that led Islam in medieval period to permit optional marriage of four women by one man, such reasons do not exist in modern society. This study recommends monogamous marriage for Islam. Passages on veiling and seclusion of woman and wife beating should be expunged from Islamic sacred books. While this may appear difficult, it is the opinion of this paper that Islam is in dire need of reforms to reposition it for global acceptance and participation in the 21st century.

Keywords: Islam, women liberation, feminism, modernism, women's rights

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Abstract: As human civilization grew, a need arose to develop certain institutions & organizations, the most important & latest of which was the state itself. Primarily this institution was concerned with administration of Justice & defence. Now for this administration of justice & defence, the state needed to empower certain people so as to legitimize their work. However more often than not the power conferred came to be abused proving the dictum right that power corrupts & absolute power corrupts absolutely. The State instead of being a protector became an oppressor. The dominating philosophy of Positive Law furthered the dictatorship, which came to be practiced by the regimes like the Nazi in Germany. Such regimes thriving on the philosophy that law is what is made, irrespective of its goodness or badness & completely ignoring the concept of what law "ought‟ to be, made things worse for the ruled. In this way self-styled autocratic rules came to be formed & promulgated, not for the benefit of the governed but the vested interests of the governing.

Keywords: Human Rights, Human Rights Protection, Protection, Natural Law, Individual, Freedom

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