iosr-JECE   Volume-6 ~ Issue-2

Abstract: Cryptography is the study of techniques for ensuring the secrecy and authentication of the information. The development of public-key cryptography is the greatest and perhaps the only true revolution in the entire history of cryptography. Elliptic Curve Cryptography is one of the public-key cryptosystem showing up in standardization efforts, including the IEEE P1363 Standard. The principal attraction of elliptic curve cryptography compared to RSA is that it offers equal security for a smaller key-size, thereby reducing the processing overhead. As a Public-Key Cryptosystem, ECC has many advantages such as fast speed, high security and short key. It is suitable for the hardware of implementation, so ECC has been more and more focused in recent years. The hardware implementation of ECC on FPGA uses the arithmetic unit that has small area, small storage unit and fast speed, and it is an extremely suitable system which has limited computation ability and storage space.[1][2] The modular arithmetic division operations are carried out using conditional successive subtractions, thereby reducing the area. The system is implemented on Vertex-Pro XCV1000 FPGA. Index Terms – VHDL, FSM, FPGA, Elliptic Curve Cryptography.

[1] HDL PROGRAMMING, VHDL and VERILOG by"Nazeih M. Botros".

[2] HDL PROGRAMMING by "J Bhasker".

[3] Cryptography and Network Security by "William Stallings"

[4] Prof.Rahila Bilal and Dr.M.Rajaram "International Journal of Computer Applications – Volume 8-No 3 October 2010.

[5] D.Saravana kumar and CH Suneetha,"international journal of distributed and parallel systems (IJDPS)"Vol 3,no 1,jan 2013.

[6] Nele Mentens and JoVliegen "A Compact FPGA Based Architecture for Elliptical Curve Cryptography over Prime Fields".

[7] Yingjie qu and Zhengming hu "Research and Design of Elliptic Curve Cryptography "(2010 IEEE).

[8] Padma Bh and Chandravathi "International Journal of Computer Science and Engineering' Vol 2 - 2010

Abstract: In the near future, there is an eminent demand for High Resolution images. In order to fulfil this demand, Super Resolution (SR) is an approach used to renovate High Resolution (HR) image from one or more Low Resolution (LR) images. The aspiration of SR is to dig up the self-sufficient information from each LR image in that set and combine the information into a single HR image. Conventional interpolation methods can produce sharp edges; however, they are approximators and tend to weaken fine structure. In order to overcome the drawback, a new approach of Effective Pixel Interpolation method is incorporated. It has been numerically verified that the resulting algorithm reinstate sharp edges and enhance fine structures satisfactorily, outperforming conventional methods. The suggested algorithm has also proved efficient enough to be applicable for real-time processing for resolution enhancement of image. Statistical examples are shown to verify the claim. Image fusion technology is also used to fuse two processed images obtained through the algorithm.

Keywords: Super Resolution, Interpolation, EESM, Image Fusion

[1] D. Glasner, S. Bagon and M. Irani, "Super-Resolution from a Single Image", IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), 2009, 349 – 356.

[2] P. Vanderwalle, S. Susstrunk and M. Vetterli, "A Frequency Domain approach to Registration of Aliased Images with Application to Super-Resolution," EURASIP Journal on Applied Signal Processing, 2006, 2006, 1-14.

[3] E. Tuomaala and Haiming Wang, "Effective SINR Approach of Link to System Mapping in OFDM/Multi-carrier Mobile Network". 2nd International Conference on Mobile Technology, Applications and Systems, 2005, 15-17,

[4] S.C. Park et al, "Super-Resolution Image Reconstruction: A Technical Overview", IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 20, 2003, 21-36.

[5] A. J. Patti and Y.Altunbasak, "Artifact Reduction for Set Theoretic Super Resolution Image Reconstruction with Edge Adaptive Constraints and Higher-Order Interpolants", IEEE Transaction on Image Processing, 10(1), J2001, 179-186.

Abstract: WiMAX ("Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access") technology is developed to meet the growing demand of increased data rate and accessing the internet at high speeds. 802.16 family of standards is officially called Wireless MAN in IEEE. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is multicarrier modulation technique used in IEEE 802.16d (fixed WiMAX) communication standard. OFDM is used to increase data rate of wireless medium with higher spectral efficiency. The proposed work is to evaluate performance of IEEE Std 802.16d transceiver in MATLAB R2009b simulink environment. System performance evaluated using BER vs SNR for different modulation technique such as 4 QAM, 16 QAM, 64 QAM under different channel condition. Keywords — 802.16d, MATLAB, OFDM, wimax.

[1] Abbas S., Khan W.A., Khan T.A., Ahmed S. "Implementation of OFDM Baseband Transmitter Compliant IEEE Std 802.16d on FPGA" Publication Year: 2010 , Page(s): 22 - 26 .

[2] M.A. Mohamed, A.S. Samarah, M.I. Fath Allah "Study of performance parameters effects on OFDM systems" IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 9, Issue 3, No 2, May 2012.

[3] Joaquin Garcia, Rene Cumplido Department of Computer Science , "On the design of an FPGA-Based OFDM modulator for IEEE 802.16-2004" INAOE, Puebla, Mexico 2005 International Conference on Reconfigurable Computing and FPGAs (ReConFig 2005).

[4] K. Harikrishna, T. Rama Rao, and Vladimir A. Labay, "FPGA Implementation of FFT Algorithm for OFDM Based IEEE 802.16d (Fixed WiMAX) Communications" Journal Of Electronic Science And Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3, September 2010

[5] IEEE computer society and the IEEE microwave theory & techniques society " IEEE standard for Local and Metropolitan area network. Part 16: Air interface for fixed broadband wireless access system." 1 October 2004.

[6] Miljko Bobrek, Kenyon H. Clark, Austin P. Albright "FPGA Implementation of Reed-Solomon Decoder for IEEE 802.16 WiMAX Systems using Simulink-Sysgen Design Environment" Oak Ridge National Laboratory Cognitive Radio Program 1 Bethel Valley Rd Oak Ridge ,TN 37831.

[7] M.A. Mohamed, A.S. Samarah, M.I. Fath Allah , "Implementation of the OFDM Physical Layer Using FPGA" IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 9, Issue 2, No 2, March 2012.

[8] Bernard Sklar , Prabitra Kumar Ray, "Digital Communication (Fundamental and applications)".

[9] Andreas F. Molisch , "Wireless Communication"

Abstract: The analysis of new types of Complementary direct sequence complex signals which have synthesized with well – know code sequences like Barker, Walsh, Golay, and complementary codes. Build on the autocorrelation function (ACF) and ambiguity function (AF) of signals, the numerical method estimates the volume of side lobes separately for each signal. The results obtained show that the signals, which have a low volume of side lobes, means of approximately zero in by using complementary codes with compare to different codes.

Keywords: Ambiguity function, complementary codes, autocorrelation function etc.

[1]. M. J. E. Golay, "Complementary Series, " IEEE Trans Info. Theory, vol. IT-7, 1961, pp 82-87.
[2]. R. Turyn, "Ambiguity Function of Complementary Sequences, " IЕЕЕ Trans. Info. Theory, vol. IT-9, Jan. 1963, pp. 46-47.
[3]. N. Suehiro, "Complete Complementary Code Composedof NMultipleshift Orthogonal Sequences, " Trans. /ЕICЕ (in Japanese), vol.
J65-A, Dec. 1982, pp. 1247-53.
[4]. N. Suehiro and M. Hatori, "N-Shift Cross-OrthogonalSequences, " IEEE Trans. Info. Theory, vol. IT-34, no. 1, Jan. 1988, pp. 143-
46.
[5]. Cherniakov M., Kubik M.: "Secondary applications of wireless technology (SAWT)", 2000 European Conference on Wireless
Technology – Paris 2000
[6]. Price R., E. Hofstetter, "Bounds on the Volume and Height Distributions of the Ambiguity Function", IEEE Transactions on
Information Theory, April, 1965.
[7]. D.B. Vakman and R. M. Sedletskii, "Problems in Synthesis of Radar Signals". Soviet Radio, Moscow, 1973 (in Russian).
[8]. D.E. Vakman, "Complex signals and ambiguity function" Soviet Radio, Moscow, 1965 (in Russian).
[9]. Diplom work of eng.A. Kabakchiev "Automatics synthesis of discrete complex signals". ( in Bulgarian)
[10]. Dissertation of professor doctor of science, Borislav Bedzhev "Improving noise protection in radar systems on the basis of algebraic method ". (in Bulgarian)

Abstract: An automated Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (AICD) is a small battery powered electrical impulse generator, implanted in patients who are in the risk of sudden cardiac death or ventricular tachycardia, and is programmed to detect the cardiac arrhythmia. Components of AICD are Leads, Electrode and Generator[1]. The electric shock is created by the generator carried by leads and delivered with the electrodes. The generator is of the size of 2 inches approximately, and 3 ounces weight. Working of AICD includes rectification of arrhythmia by means of pacing Cardioversion defibrillation. Current devices have appreciable functions including diagnosis, stored electro-grams and verification of shock appropriations and battery longevity upto 6 yrs. Here using mutual inductance[2] functions carried out with the help of a transcutaneous transformer and storing electric charge through magnetic field absolute longevity of the battery could be reached. Since, battery longevity has been tremendously increased the recurrence of surgery can be prevented. Thus, our device will bring remarkable revolution in cardiology by saving human lives from arrhythmia and periodical replacement of the device.

Keywords:-ADC, Faraday's Law, Micro-controller (MC), Mutual inductance, Transcutaneous transformer.

[1] Technical Information VNS TheraphyTM DemiPulseTM Model 103 Generator and VNS TheraphyTM DemiPulseTM Model 104 Generator For Healthcare Professionals. Cyberonics, Apr. 2008

[2] S. B. Lee, H.M. Lee, M. Kiani, U.M. Jow, and M. Ghovanloo, An inductively powered scalable 32-channel wireless neural recording system-on-a-chip for neuroscience applications, in Solid-State Circuits Conference Digest of Technical Papers (ISSCC), 2010 IEEE International, Feb. 2010, 120 –121.

[3] (2009) XcellionTM rechargeable batteries. [Online]. Available:http://greatbatchmedical.com/assets/products/XcellionBatteries.pdf

[4] H. Lim, Y. Yoon, C. Lee, I. Park, B. Song, and J. Cho, Implementation of a transcutaneous charger for fully implantable middle ear hearing device, Jan. 2005, 6813 –6816.

[5] Z. Tang, R. Sclabassi, C. Sun, S. Hackworth, J. Zhao, X. Cui, and M. Sun, Transcutaneous Battery Recharging By Volume Conduction and its Circuit Modeling, in Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2006. EMBS'06, 28th Annual International Conference of the IEEE, Sept. 2006, 644 –647.

[6] C.-C. Huang, S.-F. Yen, and C.-C. Wang, A Li-ion Battery Charging Design for Biomedical Implants, in Proc. IEEE Asia Pacific Conference on Circuits and Systems, (APCCAS'08), Dec. 2008, 400 –403.

[7] C.-W. Chuang, E. Go Chua, Y.-S. Lai, and W.-C. Fang, RF-powered Li-ion Battery Charger for Biomedical Applications, Apr. 2009, 187 –189.

Abstract: In this paper, we propose an optical clock recovery (OCR) module using the fabry-perot filter (FPF) and semiconductor optical amplifier in Mach-zehnder configuration. An optical data stream of 40 Gbit/s is input to the system and 40 GHz optical clock signal is recovered. We have also presented method of 3R optical signal regeneration by SOA in mach-zehnder (SOA-MZI) configuration by providing Re-amplification, Reshaping and Retiming using simple amplitude modulation.

Keywords: Fabry-perot filter, Optical clock recovery, SOA-MZI.

[1] G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications (Boston (USA): Mc GRAW-HILL, 2000) 166 – 171.

[2] J. Stone and L.W.Stulz, Pigtailed High-Finesse Tunable Fibre Fabry-Perot Interferometers with Large, Medium and Small Free Spectral Ranges, Electronic Letters, 23(15), 1987, 781 – 783.

[3] V. Roncin, S. Lobo, M. Ngo, L. Bramerie, A. O'Hare, M. Joindot, and J. C. Simon, Patterning Effects in All-Optical Clock Recovery: Novel Analysis Using a Clock Remodulation, IEEE J. Of selected topics in quantum electronics, 16(5), 2010.

[4] F. Ohman, S. Bischoff, B. Tromborg, J. Mork, Semiconductor devices for all-optical regeneration, proc. ICTON, 2, 2003, 41-46.

[5] M. Spyropoulou, N. Pleros, and A. Miliou, SOA-MZI-Based Nonlinear Optical Signal Processing: A Frequency Domain Transfer Function for Wavelength Conversion, Clock Recovery, and Packet Envelope Detection, IEEE J. of Quantum Electronics, 47, 2011.

Abstract: The performance of WCDMA system deteriorates in the presence of multipath fading environment. Fading destroys the orthogonality and is responsible for multiple access interference (MAI). Though conventional rake receiver provides reasonable performance in the WCDMA downlink system due to path diversity, but it does not restores the orthogonality. Linear equalizer restores orthogonality and suppresses MAI, but it is not efficient, since its performance depends on the spectral characteristics of the channel. To overcome this, Minimum Mean Square Error- Decision Feedback Equalizer (MMSE-DFE) with a linear, anticausal feedforward filter, causal feedback filter and simple detector is proposed in this paper. The filter taps of finite length DFE is derived using the cholesky factorization theory, capable of suppressing noise, Intersymbol Interference (ISI) and MAI. This paper describes the WCDMA downlink system using finite length MMSE-DFE and takes into consideration the effects of interference which includes additive white gaussian noise, multipath fading, ISI and MAI. Furthermore, the performance is compared with conventional rake receiver and MMSE and the simulation results are shown.

Keywords – MMSE, MMSE-DFE, rake receiver, WCDMA

[1]. T. L. Fulghum, D. A. Cairns, C. Cozzo, Y. P. E. Wang, and G. E. Bottomley, Adaptive generalized rake reception in DS-CDMA systems, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 8(7), 2009, 3464–3474.
[2]. John G. Proakis, Digital Communications (Mc Graw Hill, International Edition, 2001).
[3]. Thomas P. Krauss, Michael D. Zoltowski, Geert Leus, Simple MMSE Equalizers for CDMA downlink to restore chip sequence: Comparison to zero forcing and RAKE, Proc. IEEE Conf. on Acoustic Speech and Signal Processing, Istanbul, Turkey, 2000, 2865-2868.
[4]. Irfan Ghauri, Dirk T.M. Slock, Linear Receivers for the DS-CDMA downlink exploiting the orthogonality of spreading sequences,Conference record of thirty third Asilomar conference on Signal Systems and Computers,Pacific Grove, California, 1998, 650-654.
[5]. R.N. Lucky, J.Salz, E.J. Jr., Principles of Data Communication (New York, Mc Graw Hill, 1968).A. Trivedi and D. K. Mehra, Convolutionally coded adaptive space-time MMSE receiver for W-CDMA systems in multipath channels, IETE Journal of Research, 53(2), 2007, 137–151.
[6]. Ahmad M. Alsolaim, Dynamically reconfigurable architecture for third generation mobile systems, doctoral diss., College of Engineering and Technology, Ohio University, 2002.
[7]. Jordy Potman, Fokke Hoeksema and Kees Slump, Trade offs between Spreading factor, Symbol Constellation size and Rake Fingers in UMTS, available at doc.utwente.nl/46690/1/potman03tradeoffs.pdf.
[8]. T. Ojanpera and R. Prasad, An overview of Third Generation wireless personal communication: An European Perspective, IEEE Personal Communication, 1998, 59-65.
[9]. L.D. Brown, H. Hua, G. Chunyu, A widget Framework for Augmented interaction in SCAPE, Proc. of the 16th annual ACM Symposium on User interface software and technology, 2003, 1-10.
[10]. 3GPP, UMTS; UTRA (BS), FDD; Radio Transmission and reception, Technical report,ETSI TS 125 104 V5.4.0, September, 2002

Abstract: A Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a collection of wireless mobile nodes that communicates with each other without using any existing infrastructure, access point or centralized administration. Mobile ad-hoc network have the attributes such as wireless connection, continuously changing topology, distributed operation and ease of deployment. In this paper we have compared the energy consumption of reactive, proactive & hybrid routing protocol AODV,DSR,RIP & ZRP by using different mobility model. We have analyzed the Network lifetime of protocols by varying pay load, mobility, pause time and type of traffic (CBR). A detailed simulation has been carried out in qualnet. The metrics used for performance analysis are energy consumed & battery consumption. It has been observed that RIP has better network lifetime than other.

[1] [Routing Information Protocol (RIP),june 1988,The Internet Society http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1058]

[2] [Z. Haas and M. Pearlman, "Determining the Optimal Configuration for the Zone Routing rotocol", IEEE JSAC, Special Issue on Ad-Hoc Networks, August 1999.]

[3] [The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (DSR). Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. Internet EngineeringTask Force, Mar. 2001. http://www.ietf.org/internetdrafts/ draft-ietf]

[4]. [Ankit Bhardwaj, Divya and Sanjeev Sofat, "An Efficient Energy Conserving Scheme for IEEE 802.11 ADHOC Networks", IEEE 1-4244-1005-3/07,2007.]

[5] Gomez, J. & X Campbell, J. (2007). Variable-range transmission power control in wireless ad hocnetworks. IEEE Transaction on mobile computing, vol. 6(1), pp. 87–99.

[6] Wu, S.L & Tseng, Y.C. (2007). Wireless ad hoc networking, Personal-Area, Local-Area, and thesensory Area Networks, Auerbach publication, ISBN 10: 10: 0-8493-9254-3.]

[7] A.Tsertou and D.I. Laurenson. (2008). Revisiting the Hidden Terminal Problem in a CSMA/CA Wireless Network. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 7(7), pp.817-831, October 2008.

[8] [A.K.Vatsa, Prince Chauhan, Meenakshi Chauhan and Jyothi Sharma, "Routing Mechanism for MANET in Disaster Area", International Journal of Networking and Mobile Technologies, Vol 2 / ISSUE 2/ MAY 2011.]
[9]. [Mobile Ad Hoc Networking Working Group – AODV, http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3561.txt].

[10] Niranjan kumar Ray,Harsh Bardhan Sharma & Ashok kumar Turuk, "Network Lifetime Analysis of AODV, DSR andZRP at Different Network Parameters" International Journal of Mobile Network Communications & Telematics (IJMNCT) Vol.2, No.3, June 2012

Abstract: Node localization is important parameter in WSN. Node localization is required to report origin of events which makes it one of the important challenges in WSN. Received signal strength (RSS) is used to calculate distance between mobile node and reference node. The position of the mobile node is calculated using multilateration algorithm (MA). Extended Kalman filter (EKF) is utilized to estimate the actual position. In this paper, the implementation and enhancement of a tracking system based on RSS indicator with the aid of an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is described and an adaptive filter is derived.

Keywords - Extended Kalman filter (EKF), mobile node tracking, multilateration algorithm (MA), received signal strength (RSS), Wireless sensor networks (WSN)

[1] S. Umesh Babu, C. S. Kumar, R. V. Raja Kumar, "Sensor Networks for Tracking a Moving Object using Kalman Filtering", IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), Mumbai, 15-17 Dec. 2006.
[2] Jieyang Yi, Liang Zhou, "Enhanced Location Algorithm with Received-Signal-Strength Using Fading Kalman Filter in Wireless Sensor Networks". IEEE Conference Publishing.2011.
[3] Andrea Goldsmith. "Wireless Communications". New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
[4] Xiao-wei Li, Yong-jun Xu, Feng-yuan Ren. Technology of Wireless Sensor Networks. Beijing: Press of Beijing Institute of Technology, 2009.
[5] Greg Welch and Gary Bishop. "An Introduction to the Kalman Filter". Department of Computer Science University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2006.

Abstract: In wireless communication system transmitted signals are subjected to multiple reflections, diffractions and attenuation caused by obstacles such as buildings and hills, etc. At the receiver end, multiple copies of the transmitted signal are received that arrive at clearly distinguishable time instants and are faded by signal cancellation. Rake receiver is a technique to combine these so called multi-paths [2] by utilizing multiple correlation receivers allocated to those delay positions on which the significant energy arrives which achieves a significant improvement in the SNR of the output signal. This paper shows how the rake, including dispreading and descrambling could be replaced by a receiver that can be implemented on a CORDIC based hardware architecture. The performance in conjunction with the computational requirements of the receiver is widely adjustable which is significantly better than that of the conventional rake receiver.

Keywords - Rake receiver, Multi-paths, CORDIC

[1] M. Uzzafer, "Single Correlator Receiver for Wideband MultiPath Channel," in Proc. IEEE 6th CAS Symp., Shanghai, vol. 2, June 2004, pp. 421-424.

[2] R. Price and P. E. Green, "A Communication Technique for Multipath Channels," Proc. IRE, vol. 27, pp. 555-570, Mar. 1958.

[3] Ray Andraka, "A survey of CORDIC algorithms for FPGA based computers", ACM 0-89791- 978-5/98/01, 1998.

[4] Tero Ojanperä, Ramjee Prasad, "Wideband CDMA for Third Generation Mobile Communications", Norwood MA, USA, Artect House Inc., 1998, 439 pp.

[5] "Introduction to the Altera SOPC Builder", Altera Corporation, San Jose C.A., 2006.

Abstract: The A multi band microstrip patch antenna has been designed for GPS,WiMAX and WLAN applications. The proposed antenna is designed by using substrate of RT duroid having permittivity of about 2.2 and loss tangent of 1.The substrate is having thickness of 6mm at which a trapezoidal patch antenna with V slot has been introduced in this paper. The designing results like S11 parameter return loss,VSWR and field pattern is plotted successfully. The obtained result is having a two band resonance with S11 less then -10dB and VSWR less than 2. So a dual band trapezoidal microstrip patch antenna has been designed and all results are plotted.Simmulating software used is IE3D.

Keywords - V-shape slot, RT duroid, Dual band, WLAN, WiMAX,

[1] W.He, R.Jin, and J.Gerg, "E-shape patch with wideband & circular polarisation for millimetre wave communication," IEEE Trans. Antenna Propag.,vol.56,no.3, pp.893-895,2008.

[2] K.L Lau, K.M. Luk, and K.L.Lee, "Design of a circularly-polarized vertical patch antenna,"IEEE Trans. Antenna Propag.,vol.54, no.3, pp.1332-1335,2006.

[3] D.M Pozar & D.H Schauber, "Design of Microstrip antennas and arrays, New York: IEEE Press, 1995

[4] Sudhir Bhaskar & Sachin K. gupta, "Bandwidth improvement of microstrip patch antenna using H- shaped patch", Publication in the international Journal of engineering Research and application", vol.2, Issue 1, pp.334-338, Jan-Feb 2012.

[5] Wong KL and Hsu WS, "broadband triangular microstrip antenna with U shape slot" Electron lett(UK),33(1997)2085.

[6] Sharma V, Sharma V K,Bhatnager D, Saini J.S, " Compact dual frequency wide band circular patch antenna with U-slot," Proc of IEEE International symposium on Antenna and propoagation and USNC/URSI National Radio Science Meeting, (IEEE,USA),1979,1.

[7] S. W. Lee, S. M. Park, N. Kim, S. W. Park, and S. Y. Rhee, "Design and SAR Measurement of the Trapezoidal Shape Antenna," Progress In Electromagnetics Research C, Vol. 26, 127-136, 2008.

[8] Amit Kumar,P.R.Chadha, Microstrip Antenna for WLAN Application Using Probe Feed, IOSR-JECE, Volume X, Issue X (Jan. - Feb. 2013)

[9] Prof. P.R. Chadha, Amit kumar, Ractangular Microstrip Patch Antenna Designfor WLAN Application Using Probe Feed. IJETAE, Volume 2, Issue 12, December 2012

Abstract: Recent research shows that more than 70% of the available spectrum is not utilized efficiently. The bandwidth becomes expensive due to a shortage of frequencies. Therefore for efficient utilization of spectrum, we need to sniff the spectrum to determine whether it is being used by primary user or not. The term cognitive radio refers to the adoption of radio parameters using the sensed information of the spectrum. There are various spectrum sensing techniques proposed in the literature but still there is room for researchers in this field to explore more sophisticated approaches. There are three major categories of spectrum sensing techniques; transmitter detection, receiver detection and interference temperature detection. This thesis presents a survey of techniques suggested in the literature for spectrum sensing with a performance analysis of transmitter-based detection techniques.

Keywords— Include at least 5 keywords or phrases

[1] ET Docket No. 03-222 Notice of proposed rule making and order, December 2003

[2] I.F Akyildiz,W Lee, M.C Vuran, S Mohanty,"Next Generation/ Dynamic spectrum access/cognitive radio wireless networks: A survey" Computer Networks 50(2006) 2127-2159, May 2006.

[3] A. Ghasemi and E. S. Sousa,"Collaborative Spectrum Sensing for Opportunistic Access in Fading Environment", in Proc. IEEE DySPAN, pp. 131-136, Nov. 2005

[4] Amir Ghasemi, Elvino S. Sousa: "Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks: Requirements, Challenges and Design Trade-offs", IEEE Communication Magzine April 2008. page(s): 32-39.

[5] Tandra, R. Sahai, A.: SNR Walls for Feature Detectors, New Frontiers in Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks, April 2007. page(s): 559-570.

Abstract: The development of all optical super fast arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is one of the most important requirement for construction of super fast all optical processor. All optical half-adder and half-subtractor have performed most of the essential functions of the arithmetic logic unit. Here in this paper the author has proposed a scheme of single module for phase encoded simultaneous operation of half-addition and halfsubtraction for the same input bits using four wave mixing (FWM) in semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA). This type of single module for simultaneous operations using phase encoding based on the difference of phase with the reference signal one through FWM in SOA will gives fast response to accomplish the demand of super fast all optical processing.

Keywords - ALU, FWM, SOA, half-adder and half-subtractor.

[1] Stubkjaer.K.E, Semiconductor optical amplifier based all-optical gates for high speed optical processing, IEEE journal on selected topics in quantum electronics, 6(6), 2000, (1428- 1430).
[2] J.N.Roy, A.K.Maity, D.Samanta and S.Mukhopadhyay, Tree net architecture for integrated all optical arithmetic operations and data comparison scheme with optical non linear material, Opt. switching & networking vol.4, 2007, (231-237).
[3] A. K. Das, P. P. Das and S. Mukhopadhyay, A new approach of binary addition and subtraction by non-linear material based switching technique, Pramana J. Phys., Vol. 64, No. 2, February 2005.
[4] Li Pei-li, Huang De-xiu, Zhang Xin-liang, and Zhu Guang-xi, Ultrahigh-speed all-optical half adder based on four-wave mixing in semiconductor optical amplifier, Optics Express, Vol. 14, No. 24, Nov 2006 (11839-11847).
[5] J. H. Kim, Y. T. Byun, Y. M. Jhon, S. Lee, D. H. Woo and S. H. Kim, All-optical half adder using semiconductor optical amplifier based devices, Opt. Commun. 218 (2003) 345–349.
[6] John E. McGeehan, Saurabh Kumar, and Alan E. Willner, Simultaneous optical digital half-subtraction and -addition using SOAs and a PPLN, Optics Express, Vol. 15, No. 9, (2007), 5543- 5549.
[7] S.K.Garain and S.Mukhopadhyay, All optical frequency encoded binary half subtractor using PPLN waveguide and reflecting SOA, Optics and Photonics Letters Vol. 3, No. 1 (2010) 15–22.
[8] A. Gnauck, Phase shift keyed transmission, in Proc. OFC, Atlanta, GA, Mar. 2003, pp. 14–15, Paper ThE1.
[9] Chris Xu, Xiang Liu, and Xing Wei, Differential Phase-Shift Keying for High Spectral Efficiency Optical transmissions, IEEE Journal of selected topics in quantum electronics, Vol. 10, No. 2, March/April 2004 (281-293).
[10] Kit Chan, Chun-Kit Chan, Lian-Kuan Chen and Frank Tong, 20-Gbit/s all-optical XOR gate by four-wave mixing in semiconductor optical amplifier with RZ-DPSK modulated inputs, IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., 16, 897, (2004).

Abstract: data at different stages. But the most important problem is huge power utilization due to switching activity and increase in clock period that is Timing Latency; causes the performance of data path in digital design is decreased. The existing works implement various Flipflop topology in data path structure design such as conventional Transmission Gate Based Master Slave Filpflop (TGMS FF), Write Port Master Slave Flip-flop (WPMS) and Clocked Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (C2MOS). In WPMS method, area is minimized but delay is increased. In C2MOS technique Power consumption and delay is reduced, but there is a definite scope to reduce Power, area and delay. In this paper a Modified Clocked Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Latch (mC2MOS Latch) is proposed and delay, power is again reduced up to 60% and the area of the circuit is also reduced while comparing with previous methods.

Index Terms: Circuit enhancement, flip-flops (FFs), high-speed, logical effort, master–slave, transmission-gate.

[1] ElioConsoli, Gaetano Palumbo, Fellow, ―Reconsidering High speed Design Criteria For Transmission-Gate-Based Master-Slave Flip-Flops‖ IEEE VLSI system., vol., 20, No.2,Feb 2012.

[2] Alioto.M, Consoli.E, and Palumbo.G, "General strategies to design nanometer flip-flops in the energy-delay space," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 57, no. 7, pp. 1583–1596, Jul. 2010.

[3] Alioto.M, Consoli.E, and Palumbo.G, ―Flip-flop energy/performance versus clock slope and impact on the clock network design,‖ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Reg. Papers, vol. 57, no. 6, pp. 1273–1286, Jun. 2010.

[4] Morgenshtein.A, Friedman.E, Ginosar.R, and Kolodny.A, ―Unified logical effort—A method for delay evaluation and minimization in logic paths with RC interconnect,‖ IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr.(VLSI) Syst., vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 689–696, May 2010.

[5] Giacomotto.C, Nedovic.N, and Oklobdzija.V, ―The effect of the system specification on the optimal selection of clocked storage elements,‖ IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 1392–1404, Jun. 2007.

[6] Weste.N and Harris.D, "CMOS VLSI Design: A Circuits and System Perspective‖, 3rd ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2004. [7] Oklobdzija.V, "Clocking and clocked storage elements in a multi-GigaHertz environment," IBM J. Res. Devel., vol. 47, no. 5/6, pp. 567–583, Sept./Nov. 2003.

[8] Markovic.D, Nikolic.B, and Brodersen.R, "Analysis and design of low-energy flip-flops," in Proc. ISLPED, Aug. 2001, pp. 52–55. [9] Partovi.H, "Clocked Storage Elements," in Design of High-Performance Microprocessor Circuits. New York: IEEE Press, 2001, pp. 207–234.

[10] Ko.U and Balsara.P, "High-performance energy-efficient D-flip-flop circuits," IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 94–98, Feb. 2000.

Abstract: This paper proposes a newly designed microstrip patch antennas (MSA) for wireless application (CDMA Systems). The designed single antenna E-shaped patch antenna. Two parallel slots are in corporated into the patch of a microstrip antenna to expand it bandwidth, and designed antenna operates in the frequency range of 1.85 to 1.99 GHz. The antenna is designed using air as a dielectric substrate between the ground plane and substrate patch antenna. IE3D is a full-wave electromagnetic simulator based on the method of moments (MoM) technique. It has been widely used in the design of MICs, RFICs, patch antennas, wire antennas, and other RF/wireless antennas. It can be used to calculate and plot the S parameters, VSWR, current distributions as well as the radiation patterns. The results obtained for each patch were 2D and 3D view of patch, Directivity, Gain, beam width and other such parameters, true and mapped 3D radiation pattern, and 2D polar radiation pattern. The antenna successfully achieves the exhibit a broad impedance bandwidth of 27 % (at VSWR < 2) with respect to the center frequency of 1.9 GHz is designed, fabricated, and finally measured on Spectrum analyzer. The radiation pattern and directivity are also presented.. Gain maximum achievable is 3 dBi and good return loss (S11 parameters) of -30 dB is achieved along with broadside radiation pattern.

Keywords - Microstrip Patch Antenna; E-shaped, CDMA systems communications; Coaxial Probe feed, IE3D.

[1] G. Guru Prasad, G. Madhavi Latha, V. Charishma,"Design and Analysis of 8x1 Array Microstrip Patch Antenna Using IE3D" , International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT)Volume 1, Issue 3, March 2012.

[2] Sanchez-Hernandez, D., Robertson, I. D.,"A Survey of Broadband Microstrip Patch Antennas". Microwave Journal, Sept. 1996, pp. 60-82.

[3] F. Yang, X. Zhang, Y. Rahmat-Samii, "Wide-band E-shaped patch antennas for wireless communications," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation, vol. 49, pp. 1094-1100, july2001 .

[4] Godara Lal Chand."Handbook of Antennas in Wireless Communications", Boca Raton London New York CRC Press, 2002.

[5] J. Davalos Guzman, S. Gomez Ochoa, N. Ramirez Hernandez, J. L. Ramos Quirarte, "MATLAB Tool for Analysis and Design of Linear and Planar Antenna Arrays", 1st International Congress on Instrumentation and Applied Sciences, Cancun Q.R. Mexico, October 26-29, 2010.

[6] C. A. Balanis, "Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design," John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2005.

[7] M. Tariqul Islam, M.N. Shakib, N. Misran., and B. Yatim, " Analysis of L-Probe Fed Slotted Microstrip Patch Antenna," in Eleventh IEEE International Conference on Communicat-ion Systems (IEEE ICCS 2008), Guangzhou, China, pp. 380-383, November 19-21, 2008.
[8] Milligan, T.A.,"Modern Antenna Design", John Wiley & Sons Publication, New Jersey, 2005.http://www.zeland.com

Abstract: Recent advances in metamaterials (MMs) research have highlighted the possibility to create novel devices with electromagnetic functionality. The metamaterial have the power which can easily construct materials with a user-designed EM response with a particular target frequency. This is the important phenomena of THz frequency region that can make a considerable progress in design fabrication, and define the characteristics of MMs at THz frequencies. This article illustrates the latest advancements of THz MMs research.

Key word: Metamaterials (MMs), Terahertz (THz).

[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterial.

[2] J.B.Pendry, A.J.Holden, D.J.Robbins,and W.J.Stewart, "Magnetism from conductors and enhanced nonlinear phenomena",IEEE Trans.Microw.Theory Tech, vol.47,no.11,pp.2075-2084,Nov.1999.

[3] D.R.Smith,W.J.Padilla,D.C.Vier,S.C.Nemat-Nasser and S.Schultz,"Composite Medium With Simultaneously negative permeability and permittivity",phys.Rev.Lett.,vol.84,pp 4184-4187,May2000.

[4] Shelby, R. A.; Smith, DR; Schultz, S; Smith D.R; Shultz S. (2001). "Experimental Verification of a Negative Index of Refraction". Science 292 (5514): 77–9.]

[5] Guenneau, Sébastien; Alexander Movchan, Gunnar Pétursson, and S. Anantha Ramakrishna (2007). "Acoustic metamaterials for sound focusing and confinement". New Journal of Physics (free download pdf) 9 (399): 1367–2630. Bibcode:2007NJPh....9..399G.doi:10.1088/1367-2630/9/11/399.

[6] Brun, M.; S. Guenneau, and A.B. Movchan (2009-02-09). "Achieving control of in-plane elastic waves". Appl. Phys. Lett. 94 (61903): 1–7. arXiv:0812.0912.Bibcode:2009ApPhL..94f1903B. doi:10.1063/1.3068491.

[7] Wu, B.-I.; W. Wang, J. Pacheco, X. Chen, T. Grzegorczyk and J. A. Kong (2005). "A Study of Using Metamaterials as Antenna Substrate to Ehance Gain"

[8] B.Wood-Metamaterials and its Invisibility.

[9] H. Tao, W.J.Padilla, X.Zhang, and R.D.Averitt –Recent Progress in Electromagnetic Metamaterial Devices for TerahertzApplication

Abstract: The spectrum available for the wireless services is limited, the increased demand of wireless application has put a lot of limitations on the utilization of available radio spectrum. For the efficient spectrum utilization for wireless application IEEE 802.22 standard i.e. WRAN (Wireless Regional Area Network) is developed which is based on cognitive radio technique that senses the free available spectrum. It allows sharing of geographically unused channels allocated to the TV Broadcast Service, without interference. In this paper we are evaluating the performance of WRAN over physical layer with QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM modulation with Convolution coding with code rate of 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6 and obtaining the BER curves for rician channel. Simulation is performed in MATLAB.

Keywords - CC, CP, CR, OFDMA, PHY Layer, WRAN

[1] S.Haykin,"Cognitive radio: Brain empowered wireless communications"IEEE J. sel. Areas Comm.Vol.23, no.2, pp.201-220, Feb.2005.
[2] J. Mitola,"Cognitive Radios: Making Software Radios more personal" IEEE Personal Communications, vol.6, no. 4, August1999
[3] J. Mitola,"Cognitive Radios: An integrated agent architecture for software defined radio", PhD Dissersation, Royal inst. Techno.(KTH),Stockholm,Sweden2000.
[4] Functional Requirements for the IEEE 802.22 WRAN standard, IEEE 802.22-05/0007r46, Sep.
[5] C. Stevenson, G. Chouinard, L. Zhongding, H. Wendong, S. Shellhammer, and W. Caldwell, "IEEE 802.22: The First Cognitive Radio Wireless Regional Area Network Standard", IEEE Mag. Communications, vol 47, Jan. 2009, pp. 130-138, doi:10.1109/MCOM.2009.4752688.
[6] S. H. Hwang, J. S. Um, M. S. Song, C. J. Kim, H. R. Park, and Y. H Kim, "Design and Verification of IEEE 802.22 WRAN
Physical Layer (Invited Paper) ," Proc. International Conf. Cognitive Radio Oriented Wireless Networks and Communications (Crown Com 08), IEEE Press, May. 2008, pp. 1-6,doi:10.1109/CROWNCOM. 2008.4562542

[7] Richard van Nee, Ramjee Prasad "OFDM for Wireless Multimedia Communication" Artech house publishers,2000.

[8] Ahmadi, M., Rohani, E., Naeeni, P.M., & Fakhraie, S.M."Modelling & Performance Evaluation of IEEE 802.22 Physical layer"2nd International Conference on future Computer and Communication- (2010).

[9] J. G. Proakis, Digital Communications, 3rd ed., vol. 2. McGraw-Hill: New York, 1995.

Abstract: Mobile Communication system has been on high rampage for high data transmission over wireless medium with various challenges caused by the transmission Channel. OFDM is been discovered in recent years to deal with this problems because of its ability to elegantly cope with multipath interference. This paper investigates the performance of different modulation schemes using M-ary Phase Shift Keying (M-PSK) and M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (M-QAM) in information transmission with OFDM technique over Ideal channel AWGN and worst channel Rayleigh Fading channel in terms of Bits Error Rate (BER). Analysis was made for different types of modulation schemes BPSK, QPSK, 4-QAM and 16-QAM gray coded bit mapping. Also, a feasibility of OFDM been used to combat multipath fading was analyzed with comparison between a single carrier technique and OFDM multicarrier technique. Variation between SNR results with respect to BER is plotted to show the trade off differences between the modulation schemes with the result showing that OFDM allows data transmission with minimal error over fading channel than a Single Carrier. Keywords: OFDM, Single Carrier, AWGN, Rayleigh fading, BER, M-ary PSK, M-ary QAM

[1] R.W. Chang, "Synthesis of band -limited orthogonal signals for multichannel data transmission system, (1996) ― Bell system, tech. J., Vol.45, pp.1775-1796.

[2] B.R. Saltzberg, "Performance of an efficient parallel data transmission system", (1967) IEEE Trans Com Technol, vol. COM-15, Dec 1967.

[3] R.R. Mosier and R.G. Clabaugh, "Kineplex, a bandwidth efficient binary transmission system", (1958) AIEE Trans, vol 76, pp 723-728,

[4] Louis Litwin, An introduction to multicarrier modulation .IEEE Potential vol 19, no 20 April-May 2000.

[5] M. Nakagami, The m-distribution—A general formula of intensity distribution of rapid fading in Statistical Methods in Radio Wave Propagation (1960)W. C. Hoffman, Ed. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.

[6] L. Hanzo, W. Webb and T. Keller, Single and Multi Carrier Quadrature Am-plitude Modulation.(2000) John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[7] J. A. C. Bingham, Multicarrier Modulation for data transmission, (1980)‖ IEEE Trans. Commun. Tech., vol. COM-28, pp. 73–83.

[8] B. Le Floch, M. Alard and C. Berrou, "Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing," (1995) Proceedings. IEEE, pp. 982–996. [9] S. Weinstein and P. Ebert, Data Transmission by Frequency Division Multi-plexing using the Discrete Fourier Transform, (1971) IEEE Trans. Commun. Tech, vol. COM-19, pp. 628–634.

[10] A. Peled and A. Ruiz, (1980) "Frequency Domain Data Transmission using Reduced C1omputational Complexity Algorithms,‖ Proceedings of International Conference on Acoustics, vol. 3, pp. 964–967, April.