iosr-JNHS   Volume-1 ~ Issue-3

Abstract: Low birth weight babies are immature, they need special nursing care. Nurses are front line care providers they are key persons involved with the care of the low birth weight neonates round the clock. A pre-experimental study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of structured teaching programme on knowledge regarding care of low birth weight baby among (NICU) staff nurses. The study was conducted in 6 pediatrics hospitals at district Jalandhar, Punjab. Total 60 staff nurses those who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected by convenience sampling technique. A pre-test was taken by using structured questionnaire followed by structured teaching programme. After 7 days post-test was taken. The overall mean score of pre-test was 15.60 with the S.D.5.98. Whereas in post-test the overall mean score of 22.68 with S.D. of 4.55 the t-test value was 14.46* which is statistically significant at p<0.005 level of significance. The study finding implied that the education had a vital role in improving the knowledge of staff nurses regarding care of low birth weight baby.

[1]. Gurav BR, Kartikeyan S, Jape RM. Low birth weight babies. Journal of pediatric.2003; 45(3): 413-415.
[2]. Ghai.O.P. Essential pediatrics.6th edition. New Delhi: CBS Publishers, 2004.
[3]. A. Parthasaraty. IAP Textbook of Pediatrics. jaypee brothers, medical publishers(P)ltd., New Delhi.2003 pp-60-62
[4]. Parthsarthi. Text book of Paediatric. 2nd edition, Jay Pee :61-63.
[5]. United Nations Children's Fund and the World Health Organization, Low birth weight: Country, regional and global estimates, UNICEF and WHO, New York and Geneva, 2004,pp.2-3.
[6]. United Nations Children's Fund and the World Health Organization, Low birth weight: Country, regional and global estimates, UNICEF and WHO, New York and Geneva, 2004,pp. 9.

Abstract: School health education services are an economical and powerful means of raising standard of community health, especially for the future generations. School is considered as a best setting for the positive health and prevention of diseases, awakening health consciousness in which the child grows and develops. A pre-experimental study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of structured teaching programme on knowledge regarding dental hygiene among middle schoolchildren. The study was conducted in government schools of Jalandhar district, Punjab. Totally 60 students those who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected by convenience sampling technique. A pre-test was taken by using structured questionnaire followed by structured teaching programme. After 7 days post-test was taken. The result of the post-test score revealed that the structured teaching programme had its impact on improving the level of knowledge regarding dental hygiene among middle school children. The overall mean score of pre-test was 14.91 with the S.D. 3.84, whereas in post-test the overall mean score of 23.01 with S.D. of 3.72. The t-test value was -8.1* which is statistically significant at p<0.005 level of significance. After structured teaching programme 68% students had average and 32% had good level of knowledge and no one had poor level of knowledge regarding dental hygiene. The study finding implied that the education had a vital role in improving the knowledge of school children regarding dental hygiene.

[1]. Peter S. Essentials of Preventive and Community Dentistry. 1st ed. New Delhi: Arya Medical, 1999. p102.
[2]. Nair MCK, Menon PS, Parathasorthay A. IAP Textbook of Pediatrics. 2nd ed, India: Jaypee, 2000.p.910-11.
[3]. Chandra satish. Textbook of community dentistry. 1st ed. New Delhi: Jaypee, 2004. p.159-60, 72.
[4]. Jurgensen N, Peterson PE. Oral health and impact of socio behavioral factors in a cross section survey of 12 year old school children in Laos. BMC oral health. Nov 2009; 9: 29
[5]. Amin TT, AL Abad BM. Oral hygiene practice, knowledge, dietary habits and their relation to caries among male primary school children in Al Hassa. Indian Journal of dentistry.Nov2008; 6(4):361-70.
[6]. Polit F. Denise Hungler. Essentials of Nursing Research. 2nd ed. JB Lippincott Company, p-117-167.
[7]. Kalawole K, Oziegde E, Bamise C. Oral hygiene measures and the periodontal status of school children in Ile-Ife. Indian Journal of dental hygiene. March 2011; 10.1601,5037

Abstract: Chemotherapy induces nausea and vomiting. In this context; bio-field therapy like acupressure has its own significance, thus enhancing the scope of nursing. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of acupressure (p6) on nausea and vomiting among cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. A quantitative approach using Experimental design with pretest posttest was carefully utilized. For this 60 cancer patients receiving chemotherapy was selected using stratified random sampling in G.K.N.M Hospital. The intervention p6 acupressure was given by the researcher thrice a day for three days. Data collected using Standardized Rhodes index of nausea and vomiting to assess the level of nausea and vomiting by interview method was analyzed using independent 't' test and paired 't' test that found significant values 15.12 and 9.14 respectively at p<0.001. Thus, the study finding point out the effectiveness of p6 acupressure on nausea and vomiting among cancer patients receiving chemotherapy.

Keywords– Acupressure, Cancer, Chemotherapy, Nausea and Vomiting.

[1] Chemotherpy/reducing sideeffects/chemo,:// www.pubmed . pmid: 8943569 Dated on 23.9.2008.
[2] Gilda's club worldwide: www.gildasclub.org Dated on 17.12.2005.
[3] National institute of health. http://www.nim.nih.gov/medline plus/cancer.html Dated on 23.7.2006.

[4] F. Polit, Nursing research principles and methods (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2004).

[5] F. Polit, and D. Hungler Nursing research principles and methods (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 2001).

Abstract: The aim of this study was to compare the attitude and practice of midwives in a mission and government health institutions in Ogbomoso, town in south west Nigeria towards pregnant women during delivery. Five hundred and seventy nine pregnant mothers from antenatal clinic, labour and postpartum ward, were enrolled for this study. Primips were excluded from the study. Four hypotheses were tested. The study showed that the attitude and practice of mid-wives have great influence on the pregnant women perception about them. There is a mutual relationship between the mid-wife and the pregnant women and this may result to successful child(ren) delivery. The study also revealed that the attitude of mid-wives from Mission hospital is significantly different from the attitude of mid-wives from general hospital. Similarly, the Value for practice of mid-wives from Mission hospital is significantly higher than that of the mid-wives from general hospital. Lastly, the perception of pregnant women toward choice of health institutions shows great significant difference. The present study suggests the need for strict supervision of midwives to ensure quality care and positive attitude towards women in labour and Stakeholders including Nursing and Midwifery Council should intensify action on continuous education on human relations.

Keywords: Attitude, Child Delivery, Health Institutions, Midwives, Practice, Pregnant Women.

[1] V.R. Bennett and L.K. Brown, Myles textbook for Midwives (Churchill Living stone, 1999) [2] Midwifery, Wikipedia. http://www.wikipedia.com/midwifery
[3] Leap Nicky, Midwife Power: A Paper presented at the Future Birth 94th Conf. for Associates in Childbirth Education, Australia, 1994.
[4] S. Harvey, D. Rach, M.C. Stainton, J. Jarrell, R. Brant, Evaluation of satisfaction with midwifery care, PubMed Journal, 18(4), 2002, 260-267.

[5] K.M. Mahlako, The perception of selected groups of Midwives towards women experience in labour, masters diss., University of South Africa, South Africa, 2008.

[6] R. Bluff and I. Holloway, They know best: Women's perceptions of midwifery care during labour and childbirth, PubMed, 10 (3), 1994, 157-164.

[7] L.O. Ogunjimi, Rosemary Thomas, Ibe and M.M. Ikorok, Curbing maternal and child mortality: The Nigerian experience, International Journal of Nursing and Midwifery, 4(3), 2012, 33-39.

[8] C.I. Iyaniwura and Q. Yusuf, Utilization of Antenatal care and delivery services in Shagamu, South Western Nigeria, African Journal of Reproductive Health, 13(3), 2009, 110-123.

[9] Nwosu Joanna, M. Oladoyin Odubanjo and Osinusi O. Bandele, Overview of Maternal and Infant deaths in Nigeria: Reducing Maternal and Infant Mortality in Nigeria, The Nigerian Academy of Science forum on evidence-based health policy making workshop summary, 2009, 1-8.

[10] Bakare Biliqis, Tackling maternal and child mortality in Nigeria: Advocacy fo

Abstract: Scheduled routine health care follow up visits among 1-4 years old toddlers to government health clinics are not fully utilized and factors contributing to missed appointments are not well studied. Continuous health care among children under 5 years of age is one of the important factors to reduce morbidityv and mortality. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the factors contributing to missed appointments among 1-4 years old toddlers for health care. Unmatched case control study among 570 mothers (285 cases and 285 controls) in five government health clinics in Tumpat district, Kelantan, Malaysia that serving a routine child health care was conducted using guided questionnaire. Analysis involved was binary logistic regression. Results showed that working mothers (adjusted OR:1.59, 95% CI :1.10-2.30, p:<0.05), knowledge of the mothers about child health services in government health clinic (adjusted OR: 8.45, 95% CI: 4.40-16.24, p:<0.001), mother's perception towards health facilities and services in government health clinic (adjusted OR: 1.59, 95% CI: 1.10-2.30, p:<0.05 and mother's social support from people surrounding (adjusted OR : 4.89, 95% CI: 2.40-9.98, p:<0.001) were the factors contributing to missed appointments. The research findings indicate that special efforts should be made to help working mother, to promote child health care services in government health clinic and to increase social support to mother in child health care in improving their routine health care follow up visits to government health clinic.

Keywords : Factors, government health clinic, miss appointment, toddler

[1] UNICEF Malaysia. State of World's Children. The United Nations Children's Fund, 2008.http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/msl/support_8072.html [1.9.10].

[2] WHO. Child health. World Health Organization, 2012. http://www.who.int

[3] MOH. Annual report 2008. Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2008.

[4] A.P.Alio and H.M. Salihu. Maternal Determinants of Pediatric Preventive Care Utilization among Blacks and Whites. Journal of the National Medical Association, 97(6), 2005.

[5] H. Tahirovic and A. Toromanovic. Glycemic control in diabetic children: role of mother's knowledge and socioeconomic status. European Journal of Paediatrics 169, 2010, 961- 964.

[6] E. Borras, A. Dominguez, M. Fuentes, J. Batalla, N. Cardenosa and A. Plasencia. Parental knowledge of paediatric vaccination. BMC Public Health, 9, 2009.154.

[7] A. Ruhul, M. Nirali and S. Becker. Socioeconomic factors differentiating maternal and child health-seeking behavior in rural Bangladesh: A cross-sectional analysis. International Journal for Equity in Health 9(9), 2010.

[8] H. Tadesse, A. Deribew and M. Woldie. Predictors of defaulting from completion of child immunization in south Ethiopia, May 2008 – A case control study. BMC Public Health, 9, 2009, 150.

[9] J. L. Fleiss, Statistical methods for rates and proportions (New York: John Wiley, 1981).

[10] S. Shamsul Azhar, K. Nirmal, S. Nazarudin, H. Rohaizat, A. Azimatun Noor and H. Rozita. Factors Influencing Childhood Immunization Defaulters in Sabah, Malaysia. The International Medical Journal Malaysia, 11(1), 2012.

Abstract: This is a prospective, consecutive study of thyroid patients referred for ultrasound for the period of 2012 to 2014 m at King Abdulaziz University hospital. Problem of the study lies in the interest or inadequate research that have been made about the role of ultrasound imaging in monitoring and predicted differentiate benign from malignant thyroid nodule and lack of diagnosis to see which should be subjected to histopathological examination and any of them need to medical follow up only.

[1]. Wiest PW, Hartshorne MF, Inskip PD, et al. Thyroid palpation versus high-resolution thyroid ultrasonography in the detection of nodules. J Ultrasound Med 1998;17:487–496
[2]. Horlocker TT, Hay ID. Prevalence of incidental nodular thyroid disease detected during high-resolution parathyroid sonography. In: Medeiros-Neto G, Gaitan E, eds. Frontiers in thyroidology. Vol 2. New York, NY: Plenum, 1985; 1309–1312.
[3]. Mortensen JD, Woolner LB, Bennett WA. Gross and microscopic findings in clinically normal thyroid glands. J ClinEndocrinolMetab 1955;15:1270–1280.
[4]. Ezzat S, Sarti DA, Cain DR, et al. Thyroid incidentalomas: prevalence by palpation and ultrasonography. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154:1838 -1840
[5]. Frates MC, Benson CB, Charboneau JW, et al. Management of thyroid nodules detected at US: Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound consensus conference statement. Radiology 2005;237 : 794-800
[6]. Brander AE, Viikinkoski VP, Nickels JI, Kivisaari LM. Importance of thyroid abnormalities detected at US screening: a 5-year follow-up. Radiology 2000;215 : 801-806
[7]. Harnsberger H. Diagnostic imaging: head and neck. Salt Lake City, UT: Amirsys, 2004:24 -40
[8]. Papini E, Guglielmi R, Bianchini A, et al. Risk of malignancy in nonpalpable thyroid nodules: predictive value of ultrasound and color-Doppler features. J ClinEndocrinolMetab 2002;87 : 1941-1946
[9]. Danese D, Sciacchitano S, Farsetti A, Andreoli M, Pontecorvi A. Diagnostic accuracy of conventional versus sonography-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy of thyroid nodules. Thyroid 1998;8:15–21.
[10]. Court-Payen M, Nygaard B, Horn T, et al. US-Guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy of thyroid nodules. ActaRadiol 2002;43:131–140.

Abstract: Male circumcision has been advocated as an additional HIV prevention strategy but in India, it is not yet a part of the comprehensive HIV prevention package. In the Indian context male circumcision is strongly associated with specific religions and little is known about the socio-cultural and religious dimensions of this practice at the community level, the sensitivities attached to this practice, and its acceptance as a potential method of HIV infection prevention. The objectives of the study were to assess the level of knowledge and understanding of male circumcision among male youth of sexually active age group and to explore the practice of traditional male circumcision in a north Indian city. Data was collected by conducting 25 in-depth interviews, 5 key informant interviews and 2 focus group discussions. These interviews were tape recorded, transcribed, coded and analyzed using a qualitative software package. Results show that a majority of the respondents belonging to the non circumcising communities had limited understanding on male circumcision. Respondents from the circumcising community listed several benefits of doing male circumcision such as, better hygiene, prevention of infections, and enhancement of pleasure during sexual intercourse. The non circumcising community respondents considered male circumcision as a social stigma and carried the belief that approaching a traditional circumciser ("nai‟ or "hajjam‟) to undergo circumcision will or may convert them to the religion of Islam. The acceptance of circumcision as a practice to improve health and prevent infections such as, HIV, looked seemingly negative among respondents from the non circumcising communities. Due to its strong association as an identifier of a particular religion, there are fears in adopting it and being discriminated or targeted as being a member of the minority community.

Keywords – Male circumcision, HIV, religion, social stigma, acceptance

[1] WHO, HIV/AIDS Fact sheet N°360, November 2012 accessed from (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs360/en/index.html) on January 19th, 2013
[2] B Auvert, D Taljaard, E Lagarde, J Sobngwi-Tambekou , R Sitta, A Puren. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: the ANRS 1265 trial. PLoS Medicine, 2(11), 2005: e2.
[3] RC Bailey, S Moses, CB Parker, K Agot, I Maclean, JN Krieger, CF Williams, RT Campbell, JO Ndinya-Achola. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 369 (9562), 2007, 643-656.
[4] RH Gray, G Kigozi, D Serwadda, F Makumbi, S Watya, F Nalugoda, N Kiwanuka, LH Moulton, MA Chaudhary, MZ Chen, NK Sewankambo, F Wabwire-Mangen, MC Bacon, CF Williams, P Opendi, SJ Reynolds, O Laeyendecker, TC Quinn, MJ Wawer. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: A randomised trial. Lancet. Vol. 369 (9562), 2007, 657-666.
[5] HA Weiss, SL Thomas, SK Munabi, RJ Hayes. Male circumcision and risk of syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sexually Transmitted Infections. Vol. 82(2), 2006, 101-109
[6] P Aggleton. ""Just a Snip‟‟?: A Social History of Male Circumcision. Reproductive Health Matters 15 (29), 2007, 15–21.
[7] WHO & UNAIDS. Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention: Research Implications for Policy and Programming WHO/UNAIDS Technical Consultation 6–8 March 2007 Conclusions and Recommendations (Excerpts). Reproductive Health Matters, Vol. 15 (29), 2007, 11–14
[8] International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10, accessed from (http://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/N00-N99/N40-N53/N47-/N47.1) on 10th Feb, 2013
[9] S Sahay. Male Circumcision - a Passage from Cultural Rite to Biological Prevention. (National AIDS Research Institute) NARI Bulletin, Vol. 3 (3), 2012, 6-10
[10] D Silverman. The quality of qualitative health research: The open-ended interview and its alternatives. Social Sciences in Health, Vol. 4 (2),1998, 104-118.

Abstract: The main aim of the study is to find the child health and child morbidity under five years for the cause of various diseases such as acute respiratory infection (ARI) and diarrhea. Therefore ARE and diarrhea are considered as the dependent variable and all other possible characteristics that may influence the child morbidity considered as independent variables. Many statistical techniques are used to analysis the data whenever warranted. To explore bi-variants relationship, series of cross tabulations have run. In some cases the extend of relationship discerned from the analysis has been evaluated by some usual measures of association such as chi square and odd ratio statistics. The statistical technique employed here include multivariate coefficient regression

Keywords: Health, Morbidity, Children, acute respiratory infection, diarrhea, Bangladesh

[1]. Population And Housing Census 2011 Preliminary Result - Bbs.gov.bd www.bbs.gov.bd/.../userfiles/.../PHC2011Preliminary%20Result.pdf
[2]. Al-Kabir, Ahmes (1984). ٬ Effect of community factors on infant and child mortality in rural Bangladesh, Scientific Report , No-56.
Voorburg, WFS, London.'
[3]. Amir, Ruhul(1988). ٬Infant and child mortality in Bangladesh.' Journal of Biosocial Science, 20(1),pp.59-95.
[4]. Huda, K.S.(1980). Differentials in child mortality in Bangladesh: An analysis of individual and community factors, Ph.D.thesis, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbox, Michigan.
[5]. Caldwell JC(1979). Education as a factor in mortality decline: an examination of Nigeria data, population studies , 33(3): 395-413.
[6]. Mazumder K.A. Khuda, Kane and Hill(1992). Determinants of Infant and child mortality in rural Bangladesh. Reproductive health in Rural, pp490-504.
[7]. Kabir M and Amin R(1993). Factors influencing child mortality in Bangladesh and their implications for the National Health Programme. Journal of Asian-Pasific Population.Vol.8.No.3.pp.31-46.
[8]. Islam S.M.S. Alam M.F.(1996). Factor affecting child mortality in Bangladesh, the Journal of Family Welfare, and Vol.42 No.3 pp 13-18.
[9]. Majumder A.k. Islam S.M.(1993). Socioeconomic and Environmental Determinants of Child Survival in Bangladesh, J. of Biosocial Science, Vol.25 No. 3.pp.311-318.
[10]. Ahmed, B. "Differential Fertility in Bangladesh (unpublished Masters Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, 1979).

Abstract: Tears and perspiration are the regular secretions of eye organ for any human being owing to emotional issues. There were numerous literatures available on the products associated with the tears, why tears were created but the how part was not solved till date. Huge volume of literatures projecting tears were secreted by the lachrymal glands involving complex body mechanism was available. Similarly the roles of sweat glands were attributed for perspiration in the skin of mammals. My simple two instruments namely pH meter and ORP (Oxidation Reduction Potential) meter unopened this mystery that tears and perspiration were formed with an outside molecule. Lachrymal glands and Sweat glands secreted vital compounds carried by the cellular fluid in order to protect eyes and skin respectively from harmful organisms or agents.

[1]. Finkel T, Holbrook NJ. Oxidants, oxidative stress and the biology of ageing. Nature. 2000; 408:239–47.
[2]. Nic, M.; Jirat, J.; Kosata, B., eds., "spectroscopy". IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (Online ed.). 2006; doi:10.1351/goldbook.{file}. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8). [3]. William H. Frey II, Ph.D, , The Mystery of Tears Muriel Langseth. Minneapolis: 1985; Winston Press.
[4]. Darwin, C. (1872). The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. 1979; London: Julian Friedman Publishers.
[5]. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.).Butterworth–Heinemann, 1997; ISBN 0080379419.,p. 28.
[6]. Lide, David R. "Section 4, Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds; Melting, boiling, and critical temperatures of the elements". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (84th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 2003; ISBN 0-8493-0595-0. [7]. Mosher HH (1933). "Simultaneous Study of Constituents of Urine and Perspiration". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 99 (3): 781–790.
[8]. Wu K, Galina VJ, da Costa SR, Sou E, Schechter JE, HammAlvarez SF. Molecular mechanisms of lacrimal acinar secretory vesicle exocytosis. Exp Eye Res 2006 83 84-96.

Abstract: Background:. Hepatitis B and C is considered to be a significant threat to the mankind around the globe. Hepatitis is one of the major viral disease affecting significant proportion of population not only in developing countries but also in developed countries. This threat is most alarming in developing countries where poverty, illiteracy may contribute to the high risk for causes of Hepatitis B and C Pakistan is highly endemic for Hepatitis B and C. Objective: The objective of the present study were to investigate the risk factor of hepatitis among the people of Muzaffarabad Azad Jammu & Kashmir and also to check the prevalence of hepatitis B and C in the presence of different risk factors. And to investigate the relationship between education, area and gender with hepatitis. Methods: a cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted over a sample of 400 respondents based on multistage sampling technique. The chi-square test was used to assess the statistical significance to different risk factors with blood transfusion. The multiple logistic regression, Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis H test were also used to get the most significant risk factors of hepatitis B and C. Results: the study shows that the most dominant risk factors of the hepatitis B and c that were age group 15-20 (OR=2.621), 21-26 (OR=1.344) 27-31 (OR=1.005) with 95% CI. Marital status that is married (OR= 0.438) Un-married (OR= 0.850), education at different level that is Primary (OR=0.728), Secondary (OR=0.973), graduate (OR=0.688), knowledge about hepatitis B and C, yes (OR=1.412), No (OR=1.547), history of ear piercing (OR=1.401), Re-use of syringes (OR=1.250, 2.498), sexual relation with affected person (OR=3.943, 1.877). Mann-Whitney U test with gender and area of the respondents with values (15759.500, p-value=.005) and (18907.00, p-value=.266).It was found that there is difference between male and female opinion regarding knowledge about hepatitis B and C there was same knowledge about risk factor of hepatitis B and C among the people of rural and urban areas. The study shows that the educated people have more awareness and knowledge regarding hepatitis B and C.

Key Words: Chi-Square; Hepatitis B and C; Logistic Regression; Mann-Whitney U test; Odd Ratio,Muzaffarabad

[1] Muhammad Arif Mahmood, Shireen Khawar, Abdul Hameed Anjum, Siraj Munir Ahmed, Shahid Rafiq, Imran Nazir, Muhammad Usman. "Prevalence of Hepatitis B, C and HIV infection in blood donors of Multan region". Ann King Edward Med Coll. Oct - Dec 2004; 10 (4): 459-61.

[2] Malik IA, Kaleem SA, Tariq WUZ. "Hepatitis C infection. Where do we stand?" (Editorial) J College of Physcians and Surgeons Pakistan 1999; 9 (4): 234-37.

[3] Z. Liu and J. Hou, "Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) dual infection," International Journal of Medical Sciences, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 57–62, 2006.

[4] Khuwaja AK, Qureshi R. "Knowledge and Attitude about Hepatitis B and C among patients attending Family Medicine Clinics in Karachi". Eastern Mediterranean Health J 2002; 8(6): 1-6. [5] Kumar A, L. Saima. "Screening of B and C among People Visiting General Practice Clinics in Rural Dist. Of Sindh, Pakistan". J Ayub Med Coll Abbotabad 2010; 22(4).

[6] "Hepatitis B Vaccine Loses Effectiveness in Older Adults." Vaccine Weekly January 29, 2003: 23.

[7] I. Ahmad, S. B. Khan, Rahman, H. u, M. H. Khan, and S. Anwar, "Frequency of hepatitis B and hepatitis C among cataract patients," Gomal Journal of Medical Sciences, vol. 4, pp. 61–64, 2006.

[8] Abou,M.A, A.,Eltahir, Y.M. & Ali,A.S. (2009). "Seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C virus among blood donors in Nayla, South Dar Fur,Sudan",Virology Journal,6,146.

[9] E. R. Charles, R. Fanjansoa, R. Maherisoa, R. Vaomalala, R. Richter, R. Rindara, et al.,"Seroprevalence of hepatitis C and associated risk factors in urban areas of Antananarivo, Madagascar," BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 8, article 25, 2008.

[10] Ayele G.A; "Prevalence and Risk Factors of Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Virus Infections among Patients with Chronic Liver Diseases in Public Hospitals in Addis Ababa Ethiopia" ISRN Tropical Medicine 2013.